The purpose of an in-text citation is to direct the reader(s) of your paper to the exact source on your Works Cited list from which you got your information or direct quotation, with as little interruption to your writing as possible.
An in-text citation typically consists of the first thing that appears in your Works Cited citation entry for your source, and the page number(s) or other location detail(s) for where in that source the cited information can be found (if your source has page numbers/location details).
In-text citations are often placed in parentheses at the end of the sentence that contains the direct quote or paraphrased information, after the final quote mark (if applicable) and before the period.
In-text citations may also be formed by mentioning the author (or source title if there is no listed author) in your own writing, and then placing only the page number(s)/location detail(s) in parentheses (if these exist for your source).
Works Cited citation (print book with author):
Quart, Alissa. Squeezed: Why Our Families Can't Afford America. Ecco, 2018.
In-text citation (with direct quote):
In the Netflix series Ozark, for example, "the truism that we are not as likely to do as well as our parents is front and center" (Quart 218).
Alternate in-text citation (with direct quote; author mentioned in your own writing):
Referring to the Netflix series Ozark, Alissa Quart notes that "the truism that we are not as likely to do as well as our parents is front and center" (218).
Note: Use the author's full name at first mention in your own writing (you may leave out middle initials), and use only the last name thereafter.
Alternate in-text citation (paraphrased information):
While some current shows feature the lifestyles of the ultra-wealthy, others, such as Ozark, reinforce the reality that modern couples are unlikely to achieve as much financial success as their parents (Quart 218).
You may use any combination of these styles throughout your paper as appropriate. For more examples of how to format your in-text citations, click on the tab above that applies to the type of source you have.
Works Cited citation (single essay, story, or poem in an anthology):
Freedman, David H. “How Junk Food Can End Obesity.” Everyone's an Author with Readings, by Andrea Lunsford et al., 2nd ed., W. W. Norton, 2017, pp. 931-51.
Direct quote, using the author's name in your own writing:
As David Freedman states, "People aren't going to change their ingrained, neurobiologically supercharged junk-eating habits just because someone dangles vegetables in front of them" (937).
Note: Use the author's full name at first mention in your own writing (you may leave out middle initials), and use only the last name thereafter.
Direct quote, not using the author's name in your own writing:
Given that it is highly unlikely for most people to change a lifetime of "ingrained, neurobiologically supercharged junk-eating habits just because someone dangles vegetables in front of them" (Freedman 937), the prospect of finding a simple solution to the obesity crisis is daunting at best.
Paraphrase, using the author's name in your own writing:
Freedman goes on to say that the ingrained habits of junk-food eaters are not going to be changed by an offer of healthier alternatives (937).
Note: Use the author's full name at first mention in your own writing (you may leave out middle initials), and use only the last name thereafter.
Paraphrase, not using the author's name in your own writing:
As junk-food eating habits are ingrained and not easily changed (Freedman 937), simply telling junk-food eaters that they need to eat more healthy foods is unlikely to produce the desired results.
Place your parenthetical citation so it is clear what information you are citing. It does not always have to go at the end, but it should not unnecessarily interrupt the flow of your sentence.
Works Cited citation (print magazine article with two authors):
Sadek, Amy, and Brett Buford. “Clinician to Academician: Tips on Getting Started.” OT Practice, vol. 27, no. 10, Oct. 2022, pp. 12-16.
Direct quote, using the authors' names in your own writing:
As a way to "test the waters," Amy Sadek and Brett Buford suggest "starting small with guest lecturing at a local university in an OT or OTA program" (14).
Note: Use both authors' full names at first mention in your own writing (you may leave out middle initials), and use only the last names thereafter.
Direct quote, not using the authors' names in your own writing:
Before making a long term commitment, it may be helpful to try "starting small with guest lecturing at a local university in an OT or OTA program" (Sadek and Buford 14).
Paraphrase, using the authors' names in your own writing:
Sadek and Buford offer several helpful tips for deciding if making the transition from clinical practice to instruction is a good course of action, such as trying it first without long-term commitment by guest lecturing at a local college or university (14).
Note: Use both authors' full names at first mention in your own writing (you may leave out middle initials), and use only the last names thereafter.
Paraphrase, not using the authors' names in your own writing:
If the thought of transitioning from clinical practice to instruction seems daunting, it may help to try it first without long-term commitment by guest lecturing at a local college or university (Sadek and Buford 14).
Three or more authors:
Works Cited citation (library database article with DOI and three authors):
Mages, Wendy K., et al. “A College-Community Collaboration: Fostering Developmentally Appropriate Practices in the Age of Accountability.” Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, vol. 18, no. 3, Sept. 2018, pp. 174-88. ProQuest Central, https://doi.org/10.14434/josotl.v18i3.21761.
In-text citation:
In a study on the effectiveness of professional development workshops for early childhood educators, researchers found that participants most appreciated "information they could readily synthesize and use in their daily work" (Mages et al. 180).
Alternate in-text citation:
In the case of early childhood educators, a study conducted by Wendy Mages and colleagues found that those professional development workshops that provided participants with "information they could readily synthesize and use in their daily work" were the ones most highly rated (180).
Note: Use the listed author's full name at first mention in your own writing (you may leave out middle initials), and use only the last name thereafter. You must add "and colleagues" or "and others" to indicate that the listed author did not work alone, or you may include all the authors' names, depending on what works best in your writing.
Instead of an individual person or persons, a "corporate" author may be a professional association, commercial company, government agency, or another kind of organization.
Whatever author you credit in your in-text citation must be what appears first in your Works Cited citation entry.
Works Cited citation:
Conference on College Composition and Communication. “CCCC Statement on Ebonics." Conference on College Composition and Communication, National Council of Teachers of English, June 2021, cccc.ncte.org/cccc/resources/positions/ebonics.
Direct quote, using the corporate author's name in your own sentence:
In its position statement on Ebonics, the Conference on College Composition and Communication notes that this commonly used language form is "systematic and rule governed, and it is not an obstacle to learning."
Direct quote, not using the author's name in your own sentence:
Contrary to what some educational institutions may believe, the language form known as Ebonics is "systematic and rule governed, and it is not an obstacle to learning" (Conference).
In parenthetical citations, a lengthy corporate author name should be shortened to the first noun phrase, as long as it is still clear which Works Cited entry you are citing.
Paraphrase, using the author's name in your sentence:
The Conference on College Composition and Communication notes that Ebonics employs a standard system of rules, and its use in an educational setting does not interfere with a student's ability to learn.
Paraphrase, not using the author's name in your sentence:
Although some educational institutions might disagree, Ebonics employs a standard system of rules, and its use in a school setting does not interfere with a student's ability to learn (Conference).
Government agency as corporate author:
When a government agency appears to be your corporate author, you will often see more than one agency listed in connection with your source. List as author only the agency that appears to have the primary responsibility for your source, just as it appears in your source material.
Works Cited citation:
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. "Childcare Workers." Occupational Outlook Handbook, U.S. Department of Labor, 4 Oct. 2022, www.bls.gov/ooh/personal-care-and-service/childcare-workers.htm.
(Note that the parent agency is given credit as the website's publisher in this case.)
In-text citation:
Jobs for childcare workers are "projected to grow 6 percent from 2021-2031" (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics).
Alternate in-text citation:
The Occupational Outlook Handbook reports that jobs for childcare workers are expected to grow by six percent over the next decade (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics).
(Note that in this example, even though you have identified your source, it is not the first element of what appears in your Works Cited citation. You must therefore still include a parenthetical citation, as shown.)
Corporate author same as publisher:
If the corporate author is also the publisher of your source, your Works Cited entry should start with the source title (and the publisher should be listed only as publisher). See the tab labeled "No Author" for more information on how to handle in-text citations for those sources that do not include an author's name.
When you have a source with no listed author, use the title of your source in your parenthetical in-text citation.
Alternately, you may mention the title in your own writing (instead of including it in parentheses), but only when this does not create an unnecessarily awkward or unclear sentence, as may be the case with long titles that are not easily shortened (see below), or those that contain end punctuation.
Works Cited citation:
"Pollution Timeline." SIRS Timelines, ProQuest, 2022. SIRS Issues Researcher, libpro.pittcc.edu/login?url=https://explore.proquest.com/sirsissuesresearcher/document/2250547473?accountid=13209.
Direct quote:
In 1972, the Environmental Protection Agency banned the widely used pesticide DDT, "after public outrage that the chemical persists in the environment, harms wildlife and poses a threat to human health" ("Pollution Timeline").
Paraphrase:
Amidst claims of its persistent harm to the environment, wildlife, and human health, the pesticide DDT was banned by the Environmental Protection Agency in 1972 ("Pollution Timeline").
Source title worked into your own writing:
The "Pollution Timeline" notes that DDT was banned by the Environmental Protection Agency in 1972, amidst claims of its persistent harm to the environment, wildlife, and human health.
Abbreviating a title in your parenthetical in-text citation:
When the first element of your Works Cited citation is a source title that is more than a few words long, you may shorten the title when citing it in your text. The MLA Handbook recommends shortening to the first noun phrase (eliminating initial articles), or, if the title does not begin with a noun phrase, to the end of the first punctuation mark or first full phrase or clause. Make sure that your readers can still easily identify the Works Cited entry to which you are directing them.
Works Cited citation:
"The Best Time to Have Heart Surgery." Prevention, vol. 70, no. 4, Apr. 2018, p. 8. Academic Search Complete, libpro.pittcc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=128257263&site=ehost-live.
In-text citation:
According to a recent study, those cardiac patients whose surgery took place in the afternoon "had half the risk of heart attack or heart failure during recovery, compared with the morning patients" ("Best Time").
(Note that the page number is not included in the parenthetical citation above, as sources that are only one page long do not require a page number for the in-text citation.)
Works Cited citation:
DeWeerdt, Sarah. "This Is How Much an Urban Forest Is Worth." Anthropocene Magazine, 15 Mar. 2016, www.anthropocenemagazine.org/2016/03/much-urban-forest-worth.
In-text citation:
Trees in the city of Austin, Texas, for example, are responsible for storing 1.9 million tons of carbon to help counterbalance the effects of climate change, a service that is valued at $242 million ("This Is How Much").
When citing sources such as website articles that do not contain page numbers, use the author's name alone in your parenthetical in-text reference.
See the tab labeled "No Author" for those cases in which you also do not have an author listed.
Works Cited citation:
Jones, Rachel Elizabeth. “Looking for ‘The Lottery’ Author Shirley Jackson.” Seven Days, Da Capo Publishing, 8 June 2016, www.sevendaysvt.com/vermont/looking-for-the-lottery-author-shirley-jackson/Content?oid=3404873.
Direct quote, using the author's name in your own sentence:
Jones notes that Jackson "did not write exclusively, or even mostly, horror stories."
Direct quote, not using the author's name in your own sentence:
Despite the reputation she gained in later years, Jackson "did not write exclusively, or even mostly, horror stories" (Jones).
Paraphrase, using the author's name in your sentence:
Although Jackson had the reputation of being an author of dark tales, Jones notes that most of Jackson's work was not of the horror genre.
Paraphrase, not using the author's name in your sentence:
Although Jackson's reputation was that of an author of dark tales, the majority of her work was not of the horror genre (Jones).
When there are no page numbers (or other relevant location details) for your source, no parenthetical citation is needed when you use the author's name in your own text.
If you are quoting someone who is not the author of the source you actually have, you are using an "indirect quote."
When possible, it is best to track down and cite the original source of a quote, but when you cannot find the original source, or when a quote was obtained by the author as part of the research or reporting process (such as in a news article), you will cite the source in which the quote appears.
Works Cited citation:
Freedman, David H. “What Science Says about Abortion.” Newsweek, 24 June 2022, vol. 178, no. 16, pp. 20-29.
Direct quote from someone being quoted in your source:
Washington University obstetrician Michael Nelson notes that "[r]isks start going up by the late 20s" for pregnant women (qtd. in Freedman 28).
Paraphrase of what someone being quoted in your source says:
Washington University obstetrician Michael Nelson notes that pregnancy risks start increasing when women reach their late 20s (Freedman 28).
The "qtd. in" format is used only for direct quotes, not paraphrasing. Make sure that the name you put in your parenthetical citation matches up with the author's name you have in your Works Cited entry.
When discussing a creative/literary work, the work itself is likely the focus of your paper, and you will include the author's name and/or work's title in your own text.
Remember that you must direct your readers to whatever appears first in your "Works Cited" entry.
Discussion of novel:
"Works Cited" citation:
Stoker, Bram. Dracula. 1897. Bantam Books, 1981.
Direct quote (in the context of your discussion):
In his epistolary novel Dracula, Bram Stoker unfolds the story through a series of letters, journal entries, newspaper clippings and the like, beginning with an entry from Jonathan Harker's journal in which Jonathan describes his travels to Transylvania. This literary device allows for an immediate connection to the various narrators appearing throughout the work, inviting readers to view a private collection of highly personal writings, in which even a general observation may be significant to the larger picture. When Jonathan notes that he had some chicken that was "done up some way with red pepper, which was very good but thirsty" (1), it helps set the stage for what is soon to come.
Unless you are discussing multiple works and there is likely to be confusion on which work you are citing, it is not necessary to include the author's name in your parenthetical citation along with your page number once you have established the identity of the author, even if the author is not specifically mentioned in the sentence containing the quote.
Note that the page numbers you list for those literary works that have been published multiple times in various editions will only apply to the particular edition you are citing.
Discussion of film:
"Works Cited" citation:
The Bad Seed. Directed by Mervyn LeRoy, performances by Nancy Kelly and Patty McCormack, Warner Brothers Pictures, 1956.
Direct quote:
The 1956 film The Bad Seed explores the concept of "nature versus nurture" through the story of a wayward child. At one point the child's mother, Christine Penmark, asks neighbor Reggie Tasker if the upbringing of remorselessly violence-prone children might make a difference in the way they turn out. He replies in the negative. "It's just that they are bad seeds," he explains. "Plain bad from the beginning. And nothing can change them."
In this case no parenthetical citation is needed; film citations usually begin with the film title and do not contain page numbers.
These general tips are found throughout the "In-Text Citations" example pages; see individual tabs for more information.